You can download the report of the Parliamentary Inquiry Commission, established to investigate drug addiction and new forms of addiction in order to identify the causes of addiction and determine the necessary measures, from the link below.
METHODS AND TOOLS FOR COMBATING SUBSTANCE ABUSE IN THE UNITED STATES
Prepared by: Sevgi SUÇİN
Director of the Department for the Prevention and Control of Non-Alcoholic Substance Abuse
The United States, which faces a serious problem of “addictive
substance use and addiction” at the societal level—particularly prevalent among the young population— to address this situation
, supports various
intervention programs at both the government and civil society levels and provides significant financial support
for related efforts. This report provides information on some of the
tools currently used by the United States, as well as the benefits of research in this field, data sources, and
effective treatment systems.
DRUG COURTS
One way to increase access to treatment for substance abuse is through Drug Courts.
Drug Courts aim to create behavioral change and abstain from substance use.
coercive measures by the justice system to encourage drug addicts to stop
It benefits from its power. Drug Courts perform their duties by making decisions compulsory and random.
drug testing, complementary treatment (post-release assistance), and enhanced sanctions
It accomplishes this by using all of them together. The courts have shown great success.
This has been proven by studies. Since its first implementation in Florida in 1989, approximately
2000 drug courts are operating across America.
General Characteristics
Drug Tribunals Save Lives
Drug court programs have a real impact on the propensity to commit crimes.
The National Justice Agency’s report on “those who received prison sentences for drug-related crimes”
re-arrest rates of individuals who graduate from drug courts
A “comparative” study found significant differences between the two groups. Drug court
While the probability of arrest and detention for a drug addict who is not a graduate is 43.5%,
drug court graduate re-enters within the first year after graduation
The probability of arrest and detention for a serious crime is 16.4%. (Figures from the last two years)
According to the study, the tendency to commit crimes is 58.6% for those who have not graduated, while it is 27.5% for graduates.
Courts in Numbers
The drug court movement continues to grow rapidly. Since 1989
Drug Tribunals are in operation and are used in all 50 states, the District of Columbia, and Northern Ireland.
Implemented in the Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, Guam, and all 121 tribal settlements.
It is planned to be passed.
SCREENING AND PARTIAL INTERVENTION
Substance abuse is a major public health concern for American citizens.
It is one of the problems. Substance addiction destroys lives, breaks up families, and harms health.
These services, along with legal, business, and other expenses, cost billions of dollars every year.
This is happening in the United States with substance use addiction and poverty.
To reduce the problem, the Federal Government should diagnose substance use before it becomes a serious issue.
and from the national health services system to help treat addiction
They have launched an innovative new initiative that will be beneficial.
Early Detection of Substance Use Saves Lives.
Improving the Healthcare System to Reduce Substance Abuse
Federal Government “Screening, Partial Intervention, Referral and Treatment” – Screening, Brief
An example program called Intervention, Referral and Treatment (SBIRT).
It has created.
To date, the SBIRT program has been implemented in 17 states: Alaska, Arizona,
California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Hawaii, Illinois, Massachusetts, New
Mexico, New York, Pennsylvania, Texas, Tennessee, Washington and Wisconsin.
As of August 2007, more than 539,000 patients had participated in the SBIRT sample program.
They were screened. 15.5% of them received immediate intervention, and 3% were enrolled in addiction treatment.
And 3.5% were referred for specialist addiction treatment programs.
Following six months of patient follow-up, substance use decreased after “immediate intervention”.
A significant decrease has been observed.
In early January 2007, the Medical Services and Medical Assistance Services Center approved “CMS”.
Medical codes are also used to provide medical information to doctors who screen for substance and alcohol abuse.
A donation invoice can be issued.
RANDOM STUDENT DRUG TEST
What is Random Student Drug Testing?
The Random Student Drug Test is a valid way to say no to substance use in students.
It is a powerful tool that provides a reason. Testing conducted in accordance with privacy regulations is already in place.
It enables the identification of students who have started using substances and provides counseling for these students.
It guides. It also guides students who have developed addiction or are in the process of developing it.
It helps in identifying and getting these students treated.
Why Random Student Testing?
Drug Testing Is Effective
Random Testing and Privacy: This Is Not a Violation
The U.S. Supreme Court has ruled that “substance abuse testing must be conducted in a manner that respects privacy principles
.” Schools are required to respect students’ privacy
and are obligated to comply with the Supreme Court’s rulings
. Only those who need to know the test results have the right to view them
. Test results must not be shared with anyone, including teachers. The goal is to
deter substance use, provide early intervention for those who have just started using substances, offer professional support to those who have become
dependent, protect children from being exposed to substance use
, and prevent them from being punished for substance use.
Testing Programs Increase Participation in Extracurricular Activities
Random drug testing creates a culture of trust, fostering a safe environment for students
and encouraging them to participate in club activities and sports.
A study conducted by Oregon Health Science University found that random student
testing led to a 10% increase in participation rates in extracurricular activities at school.
Random Testing Helps Parents and Their Children
More than 1,000 schools in the United States have already begun implementing their own random testing programs
.
Random testing programs complement existing substance abuse education and prevention efforts
.
FINANCIAL SUPPORT PROGRAMS FOR COMMUNITIES
General Features
Encourages Collaboration
Providing Financial Support to Communities
FACTS ABOUT ACCESS TO TREATMENT
According to the latest National Survey on Drug Use and Health, more than 20 million people are unable to access treatment services even though they need treatment due to alcohol and illicit substance use. To address this gap, President Bush has launched a new, voluntary program that expands existing treatment services in the United States and helps people recover from addiction.
Launched in 2008, the “Access to Recovery (ATR)” program provides vouchers for both recovery support programs and complementary treatment services. First and foremost, Access to Recovery is expanding treatment options to include faith-based and community-based providers. This allows clients to choose the treatment programs that best meet their needs. Congress has approved a $300 million budget for Access to Recovery (ATR) over the past three years.
What Does Access to Treatment Provide?
ATR: Effective Treatment Process for Substance Abusers
To date, over $300 million in funding has been allocated to 14 states and one tribal organization over the course of three years. Initial data on the program indicate that it has been successful.
As of March 31, 2007, ATR programs:
NIDA (National Institute on Drug Abuse) Community Epidemiology
s (CEWG) Working Group
DATA SOURCES OF THE NIDA COMMUNITY EPIDEMIOLOGY WORKING GROUP (CEWG)
THE ROLE OF RESEARCH IN THE FIGHT AGAINST SUBSTANCE ABUSE
The Primary Objective of the Research:
The Role of Research in Achieving Public Health Goals
Research Helps Identify Risk Factors for Substance Use:
FINDINGS
For Effective Treatment:
REFERENCES
Office of National Drug Control Policy, USA (September 2007). Fact Sheet: Access to Recovery.
http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/pdf/A2RFinal0907.pdf (Accessed January 23, 2008)
Office of National Drug Control Policy, USA (June 2007). Drug courts: providing
treatment instead of jail for non-violent offenders.
http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/asp/topics.asp?txtTopicID=1&txtSubTopi
cID=0 (Accessed: January 23, 2008)
Office of National Drug Control Policy, USA (January 2007). Screening & brief intervention.
http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/pdf/screen_brief_intv.pdf (Accessed:
January 23, 2008)
Office of National Drug Control Policy, USA (March 2007). Random student drug testing.
http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/asp/topics.asp?txtTopicID=1&txtSubTopi
cID=0 (Accessed: January 23, 2008)
Office of National Drug Control Policy, USA (January 2007). Drug-free communities support
program
http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/asp/topics.asp?txtTopicID=1&txtSubTopi
cID=0 (Accessed: January 23, 2008)
The White House, USA (February 2007). National Drug Control Strategy
The World Health Organization (WHO) uses the term “substance dependence” instead of “drug addiction.”
Substance dependence is assessed under 8 separate headings. These are as follows:
Opioid Addiction: (Substances such as morphine, heroin, codeine, and methadone) The potential for addiction among substances in this group is very high. Opium and Its Derivatives (opium, morphine, heroin, codeine, methadone)
Opium is obtained from the white sap that flows when the poppy capsule is scored. Opium contains 10% morphine, 0.5% codeine, and 6% narcotine. Shortly after opium is used, it relieves any pain that may be present, but this effect is short-lived; it is followed by nausea, dizziness, and a slowing of the heart rate and breathing.
Morphine is obtained through the chemical extraction of opium. It is used in medicine under a doctor’s supervision; its use outside of this context is prohibited. In the event of a morphine overdose, the user first experiences depression; the pupils constrict, the pulse and breathing slow down, and the heartbeat becomes irregular. Death may occur shortly after use.
Heroin is produced by subjecting morphine base—derived from opium—to various chemical treatments and processes. Heroin is a type of drug that causes severe addiction after only a short period of use. COMMON NAMES: CHEESE, THE STUFF, SCRAPS, AND GEM. Heroin is the most potent and dangerous of all narcotics. Users of heroin experience sweating and heart palpitations; their physical resistance is broken down, severe pain begins in the knees, lower back, and head, their appetite disappears and they lose their strength, the sparkle in their eyes fades, they remain constantly dazed and lose touch with the world, and they come to resemble a living corpse.
Alcohol, Barbiturate, and Benzodiazepine-Type Dependence: Alcohol (ethanol, methanol, glycol compounds), barbiturates (substances with sedative properties used in general anesthesia and the treatment of epilepsy), and benzodiazepines (sedative medications) fall into this group. It is generally accepted that their specific and regular use leads to dependence. The time it takes for dependence to develop varies depending on the amount used. Alcohol can cause gastritis and ulcers in the stomach; enlargement, fatty degeneration, and cirrhosis of the liver; reduced vitamin absorption and nutritional deficiencies in the intestines; damage to nerve cells and paralysis; muscle weakness and dementia; alcohol coma; and death.
Marijuana Addiction (Cannabis, Marijuana, Hashish): It has been proven that when marijuana is used, it immediately reaches vital organs, remains in the body for a long time, and causes physical dependence. Marijuana is one of the most commonly used illicit substances. Cannabis is derived from the Indian hemp plant. Its dried and crushed leaves, seeds, and powdered form
or brown, and is sold in compressed blocks. It is rolled like a cigarette and smoked after being mixed with cigarette tobacco. Among users, it is known as a “joint,” “weed,” or “marijuana.” After consumption, effects such as temporary relaxation, talkativeness, a sense of well-being, and heightened perception of music and colors are observed. When cannabis is ingested, it accumulates in fatty tissue, and the active ingredient remains in the body even a week later. Following cannabis use, a person’s reflexes are impaired; they cannot drive or perform tasks requiring attention. Attempting such tasks can lead to serious problems. Marijuana has a significant impact on memory. It impairs a person’s ability to think, learn, and solve problems. These effects are more pronounced in adolescents. According to some research findings, marijuana use during adolescence has been found to have more negative effects on psychosocial functioning. Long-term marijuana use can lead to respiratory diseases such as bronchitis and lung cancer. Although there are claims that it is not an addictive substance, marijuana is addictive. Marijuana serves as a gateway to the use of other addictive substances. There is evidence suggesting that cannabis use can lead to psychosis and increases the risk of other mental disorders.
When marijuana is used, the mouth becomes dry, the pupils dilate, the eyes become bloodshot, the pulse and heart rate increase, blood pressure rises, the nose becomes dry, the face flushes, and a burning sensation in the throat, coughing, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea may occur.
Cocaine Addiction: Cocaine is an extremely potent stimulant. Not only is it rapidly metabolized (to the point of becoming part of the body), but taking it in excessive doses can also lead to death. It leads to a rapidly developing addiction. (Crack is another form of cocaine.) It is derived from the coca leaf through chemical processes. COMMON NAMES: ROCK, COKE
Effects observed in cocaine users: Pupils dilate; heart rate and blood pressure rise; nausea and vomiting occur when used in high doses.
Stimulant-Type Addiction (Psychostimulant Medications): Medications such as amphetamine and methylphenidate fall into this category. While these medications are used to treat clinical conditions such as sleep disorders and hyperactivity, they are often misused to address subjective issues like weight loss and insomnia.
It is observed that it is used. In cases of misuse, an overdose can lead to death.
Hallucinogenic Addiction: These are substances that cause hallucinations, such as LSD and mescaline. Research into the formation and development of addiction is still ongoing. Synthetics (Ecstasy, Captagon, Methamphetamine): Ecstasy is a synthetic drug derived from amphetamine that stimulates the central nervous system and can also cause hallucinations. It comes in tablet, capsule, powder, or liquid form. COMMON NAMES: Ex, ix, wing, flight, fish
Effects observed in Ecstasy users include: a temporary increase in strength, an exaggerated sense of euphoria, loss of appetite, reduced need for sleep, hallucinations, restlessness, tension, increased blood pressure and body temperature, and a slowed heart rate.
Solvent-Inhalation Addiction: Volatile substances are easily accessible because their sale is legal. Their use is also widespread due to their low cost. Commonly used volatile substances are listed below:
The methods of use and effects of these substances on the user are as follows: Thinner is usually placed in a bag and inhaled from there. Adhesives, on the other hand, are soaked into a piece of cloth and then sniffed. When volatile substances are used, they can cause a false sense of euphoria, a feeling of calm, and hallucinations. Their effects include severe intoxication, loss of balance, and difficulty walking. Because they have a direct toxic effect on the brain, they are extremely harmful. Their negative effects on learning make their use by children an even greater concern. It also has a high potential for addiction. Sudden deaths frequently occur among those who inhale volatile substances. Sudden deaths can result from the substance’s adverse effects on the brain and heart. Aggressive and dangerous behavior is frequently observed among users of volatile substances.
The notion that inhalants are used only by street children is incorrect. These substances are now used by people of all ages and socioeconomic backgrounds. Inhalants can cause intoxication, loss of balance, and difficulty walking. In addition to symptoms such as headaches, nausea, and vomiting, sudden deaths due to asphyxiation and suffocation can also occur. They have adverse effects such as attention deficits, learning difficulties, and impaired cognitive function. They alter the structure of the brain.
Tobacco Addiction: Tobacco is a harmful, addictive substance that is widely used around the world and is generally not frowned upon by society. It is known that a large proportion of tobacco users resume using it shortly after quitting. This fact demonstrates that tobacco is a highly addictive substance. When tobacco is burned, three key components are released in addition to ash. These components are:
Smoking ranks among the leading causes of death worldwide. For this reason, countries tend to restrict or ban smoking. It is a well-known fact that smoking causes many serious diseases in addition to addiction. It is well known that smoking causes blockages in the blood vessels and leads to heart disease. In addition, smoking causes the bronchi to narrow, leading to lung disorders, as well as blockages in the blood vessels of the brain and associated strokes.
A large proportion of people with lung cancer are tobacco users. Lung cancer is linked to tar, the active ingredient in cigarettes. In addition, the incidence of bladder cancer among tobacco users is twice as high as among non-users. Smoking or tobacco use during pregnancy leads to premature birth, infant mortality, and the birth of babies with low birth weight. It is well known that tobacco companies specifically target adolescents. One of the main reasons for targeting adolescents is that it is easy for them to develop the habit. A significant portion of advertisements is directed at adolescents. Therefore, it can be argued that adolescents are being exploited by the use of certain characteristics of adolescence in these advertisements.
The term “narcotic substance,” while generally used in the field of medicine, also has legal implications. Derived from the Greek word “narke,” meaning “sleep,” the term refers to substances that have a narcotic effect and can lead to addiction (Dönmezer, 1975).
The concept of a narcotic substance varies depending on the context in which the term is used. From a brief scientific perspective, a narcotic substance can be defined as a substance that falls outside the scope of food and, due to its chemical structure and functions, has a harmful effect on living organisms. Based on this definition, the term “narcotic substance” encompasses chemical substances used in both agricultural and industrial contexts. In medicine, a narcotic substance can be defined as any substance used in the treatment of a physiological or mental disorder. However, if a narcotic substance is used in a harmful manner—that is, outside the dosage prescribed for treatment or haphazardly—or if it is used for recreational purposes, then it should be evaluated within the context of the narcotic substance problem (Günal, 1976).
Narcotics have been defined in the literature as substances that render a person physically and mentally inactive, render them useless, cause the loss of expected functions, and are addictive. One of the most well-known of these, “morphine,” is a word derived from Morpheus, the god of sleep in ancient Greek mythology, and has been used across all sectors for years, with its use actively encouraged and promoted (Bayhan, 1997).
Today, in our country, the term “narcotic” is generally used to refer to addictive substances. However, it is actually incorrect to use the term “narcotic” for all substances that can be addictive. This definition creates the impression that certain stimulants are excluded from this category. In fact, stimulants are substances that cause addiction just like narcotics. Therefore, it would be correct to include all addictive substances within this concept. In medical literature, these are referred to as psychoactive substances. In foreign sources, these substances were previously referred to as “drugs.” However, since the term “drug” is also used to mean “medication,” this has posed a significant problem, and it has been recognized that classifying all medications under the “drug” category is incorrect. Recently, they have been referred to as “substances” (Ögel, 1997).
Criminal codes have avoided providing a definitive definition of narcotic substances (Erem and Toroslu, 1973). However, the World Health Organization (WHO) has adopted a definition, classifying as narcotic substances those substances—whether natural or synthetic—that, as a result of repeated use, cause harm to the individual and society and result in a state of chronic intoxication.
For any substance to be classified as a narcotic:
• The substance must be identified and listed in the schedules established under international treaties,
• The substance must have toxic effects,
• There must be a tendency toward its use in increasingly larger quantities,
• It must cause physical, psychological, or both types of dependence when used, and certain withdrawal symptoms must appear upon cessation.
He has categorized its characteristics into three main groups:
a) A strong craving to continue taking the drug,
b) A tendency to increase the dose of the substance being used,
c) A psychological and sometimes even physical dependence on the substance’s effects (Özen, 1973).
REFERENCES:
1) BAYHAN, N., (1997) The Harlam Model in Drug Abuse, Birleşik Yayıncılık, Istanbul.
2) DÖNMEZER, S., (1975) Criminology, Revised Fifth Edition, Istanbul.
3) EREM, F., TOROSLU, N. (1973) Turkish Criminal Law, Special Provisions, Ankara.
4) GÜNAL, H.Y., (1976) Narcotics Offenses, İş Printing and Trade, Ankara.
5) ÖGEL, K., (1997) Narcotic Substances and Addiction, İletişim Publishing, Şefik Printing House, Istanbul.
6) ÖZEN, C., TÜBİTAK “Symposium on Drug Habits,” May 11–12, 1973, Ankara.
Opium has been cultivated in Anatolia since around 3000 B.C. Around 4000 B.C., the Sumerians cultivated poppies and hemp in Lower Mesopotamia and used them for medicinal purposes (Ögel, 1997).
Anatolia plays an extremely important role in the history of opium. Nearly all species of the genus Papaver grow in this region. At least 50 species are known. However, the most important species, Papaver somniferum, contains such a high concentration of alkaloids—far exceeding that of varieties grown in other countries—that it is found exclusively in these lands. Even native species from other countries show a significant increase in their alkaloid content when brought to Anatolia and cultivated there (Ögel, 1997).
The first legal regulations in our country concerning the cultivation of opium poppies, the production of opium, and those who used or supplied these substances were enacted during the reign of Fatih Sultan Mehmet. During the reign of Murad IV, the use of opium, tobacco, and coffee was banned (Ögel, 1997).
The term “afyon” first appears in 1873 during the Ottoman Empire. Over time, it gradually began to appear in other dictionaries as well (Ögel, 1997).
The 1839 Tanzimat Edict and the 1856 Islahat Edict marked the moment when full-fledged colonial scenarios were drawn up and put into practice for the Ottoman Empire. In the early 1930s, a Japanese executive known as Kikuçi established an alkaloid factory under the Turkish Republic government. In addition, a number of opium-related factories were established (EGM, 1996).
The Republic of Turkey was admitted to the League of Nations on July 18, 1932, and on April 3, 1933, the law regarding the restriction of opium poppy cultivation and the transfer of opium production and sales operations to the “Narcotics Monopoly,” which was under the Ministry of Economy, and the 1931 Geneva Opium Convention were adopted. In 1938, this monopoly was transferred to the Agricultural Products Office (EGM, 1994).
To prevent the manufacture of this substance, the death penalty for this crime was introduced into the Turkish Penal Code No. 765, and the import of “anhydride,” a substance used in its manufacture, was banned. Globally, efforts to control this substance are being made through the “Central Committee,” which was established on a permanent basis under the “Geneva Convention” of February 19, 1925, for the control of opium. In 1953, nearly 50 countries decided to halt heroin production within their borders (EGM, 1994).
The Republic of Turkey has never wavered from its equally strict and firm stance toward all substances with narcotic or stimulant properties, whether derived from natural sources or produced synthetically.
Between 1938 and 1971, Turkey accounted for 50–55 percent of the global legal opium market. In the 1970s, the international community began holding Turkey responsible for and accusing it of illicit opium trafficking, and in 1971, the government completely banned opium production. This ban affected 1.5 million people for whom opium production was their sole source of livelihood, and the fact that no other crops could be grown on their land drove these people into poverty. In 1974, this ban was lifted. (Opium gum production was banned.) Additionally, a licensing system for production and harvesting was introduced in an effort to curb illegal production. The number of production areas, which stood at 42 in 1961, has since dropped to 10. In 1994, 12,450 metric tons of opium were harvested from an area of 25,332 hectares. The entire production is purchased by the Turkish Grain Board (TMO) and sent to the alkaloid factory established in Bolvadin in 1981 for processing. Between 90 and 95 percent of the factory’s production is exported (Ögel, 1997). The areas legally cultivated with opium poppy and hemp in our country are shown in Figure 1.1 (EGM, 1996).
REFERENCES:
1) GENERAL DIRECTORATE OF SECURITY (1994) Directorate General for Combating Smuggling and Organized Crime, General Assessment of Narcotics Incidents, Narcotics Branch Directorate, Ankara.
2) GENERAL DIRECTORATE OF SECURITY (1996) Directorate General for Combating Smuggling and Organized Crime, General Assessment of Narcotics Incidents, Narcotics Branch Directorate, Ankara.
3) ÖGEL, K., (1997) Narcotics and Addiction, İletişim Publishing, Şefik Printing House, Istanbul.
It is known that, from the very beginning of human history, psychoactive substances have been used for pleasure, pain relief, and healing. In primitive societies, during healing ceremonies, tribal rituals, and rites of passage into manhood, methods such as fasting, dehydration, sleep deprivation, social and emotional isolation, painful stimuli, dance, meditation, prayer, auditory stimuli, and hypnotic suggestions—to reach states of consciousness distinct from everyday levels. In addition to these methods, psychoactive substances such as hallucinogenic plants, opium derivatives, coca leaves, and cannabis played a major role (Ögel, 1997).
It is known that the Aztec and Maya civilizations used mushrooms containing hallucinogenic substances in shamanic rituals. Amanita muscaria, a psychoactive substance, was also a type of mushroom used in shamanic rituals on the Asian continent. Cocaine is still used today by South American indigenous peoples to cope with harsh natural conditions, hunger, and fatigue during long journeys on foot. In Hindu texts dating back 3,000 years, cannabis was held in a sacred place. In ancient Rome and Greece, opium was used to treat many illnesses and alleviate various problems—for example, to quiet children who cried excessively. Before the Common Era, these substances were widely used in Egyptian, Persian, and Indian civilizations. In Mesopotamia, records related to the Assyrians and Sumerians also mention the cultivation of opium and hemp. These substances were considered divine and sacred plants. There is evidence that these substances were used in shamanic rituals in the Mongol, Turkic, and Siberian regions. In China, however, evidence of the use of these substances dates back only to the 10th century (Ögel, 1997).
In Neolithic villages in Switzerland dating to the fourth millennium B.C., consisting of houses built on stilts, remains of cultivated poppy seeds and their capsules have been found. According to botanical analyses, these are Papaver somniferum or a hybrid species (Booth, 1996).
Around 3400 B.C., opium poppies were being cultivated in the Tigris-Euphrates river systems of Lower Mesopotamia. The Sumerians, who were the first in the world to establish a civilization and develop agriculture, used the ideograms “hul” and “gil” for opium poppy, which translates to “plant of pleasure” (Köknel, 1976).
In the book on medicinal plants known as “Pun Tsao,” which is said to have been written in 40 volumes by the Chinese Emperor Shen Nung, who lived around 2735 B.C., “Cannabis” is listed among the 265 medicinal substances (Köknel, 1976).
By the end of the second millennium B.C., opium was already known in Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. Medical tablets in the library of Ashurbanipal, King of Babylon, mention the sap of the opium poppy. However, these are thought to be copies of older texts. According to the physicians of the time, opium was a cure for almost every ailment and was sometimes used in combination with licorice root or melesene. Of the 115 plant mixtures mentioned, 42 involve opium. Opium was harvested in the early morning hours by women and children, and the sap oozing from the incisions in the poppy capsules was collected using small iron ladles (Booth, 1997).
The oldest opium find also came from Egypt; a sample was discovered in the tomb of Cha, dating from the 15th century B.C. Around the same time, the city of Thebes in Egypt had become so famous for its poppy fields that opium produced in Egypt was referred to as “Theban opium.” The name of the alkaloid “thebaine” also derives from this city. In the 1552 B.C.E., the Theban Medical Papyrus, as well as in other sources such as the Veterinary and Gynecological Papyri found at Kahun and dating from 2160–1788 B.C.E., opium is frequently mentioned alongside other natural remedies and medicines: Opium is included among the 700 remedies listed in the first source—sometimes referred to as the Ebers Papyrus after the scholar Georg Moritz Ebers, who discovered the document—and an entire section is devoted to explaining how to use opium to calm unruly children. The prescription in this section recommends mixing opium with fly droppings to form a paste, sifting it through a sieve, and using it for four days (Booth, 1997).
Opium, which has been known as a medicine in China since the 7th century, suddenly took on a new dimension in the 17th century with the spread of tobacco—first to Europe and then to Asia—from the Americas, and the growing popularity of tobacco smoking. The practice of mixing opium with tobacco and burning it slowly—which provided pleasure without the life-threatening risks associated with oral consumption—rapidly popularized its use. The Chinese emperors were quick to recognize the economic implications of this rapidly growing habit in their country, and as early as 1729, Emperor Yuang-Çeng banned its sale and consumption. In 1773, the British recognized the importance of this trade, and the British East India Company secured a monopoly on the cultivation of opium in Bengal and its export to China. Despite the ban imposed by Yuang-Çeng in 1729, the 200 chests of opium gum that reached China that same year had increased to 1,000 chests by 1767. In 1796, Emperor Jiaqing completely banned the import and cultivation of opium. Between 1820 and 1830, the annual amount of opium entering China reached 10,000 chests. This trade exceeded 40,000 chests in 1838, and thus the Company’s trade with China shifted in Britain’s favor. Until then, Britain had been forced to pay with gold and silver to obtain Chinese porcelain and silk, but now it was paying solely with opium. However, the Chinese Empire subsequently launched a serious campaign against opium and, in 1839, had 20,000 chests of opium seized from warehouses burned in the city square in Canton. The loss to the British East India Company was devastating (Babaoğlu, 1997).
In February 1840, the British government decided to launch an expedition against China. British forces attacked Canton in May 1841 and withdrew after receiving a ransom of six million dollars. Thus, the First Opium War began. Later, in 1842, a second war broke out, resulting in the signing of the Treaty of Nanking and the cession of Hong Kong to Britain. Five ports were opened to Britain, and the right to trade—which until then had been granted as a favor by the Chinese Empire—became a definitive privilege; furthermore, 21 million dollars in reparations were paid to Britain, and subsequently, a series of wars broke out, again due to opium. The number of Chinese who lost their lives in connection with the opium trade ranged from 200 million to 500 million, according to various estimates (Babaoğlu, 1997).
REFERENCES:
1) BABAOĞLU, A.N., (1997) Drugs and Their History, Analiz Printing, Publishing, Design, and Production Ltd., Kaynak Publications, Istanbul.
2) BOOTH, M., (1996) From Opium to Heroin: The 6,000-Year History of Drugs, Acar Printing, Istanbul.
3) KÖKNEL, Ö., (1976) Drug Problems Throughout Human History, Gelişim Publications, Çelik Cilt Printing House, Istanbul.
4) ÖGEL, K., (1997) Narcotics and Addiction, İletişim Publishing, Şefik Printing House, Istanbul.
